The first religious and political division in Islam arose in the second half of the seventh century. The disagreement over the nature and succession of power in the Caliphate led to the division of Muslims into Sunnis, Shiites (Arabic for “adherents,” “party”), and Kharijites (Arabic for “speakers”). The Sunnis recognized the legitimacy of the power of the first four Righteous Caliphs, and the Shiites considered the only legitimate head of the Muslim community the fourth Righteous Caliph and the first Shiite Imam Ali (d. 661), and after his death – his descendants (Alids). The consequence of this split was civil war in the Arab Caliphate.
Beginning in the 7th century, Islamic theology became interested in such theoretical problems as: the problem of faith, the status of man who committed a grave sin, predestination, the ratio of the divine essence and attributes, the “createdness” of the Quran, etc. The divergence on these questions led to the emergence of a number of currents, among which the Sunnis, Shiites, Harijites, Murjites, and Mu’tazilites stand out. As a result, there was no official orthodoxy in Islam, and theological polemics remained an integral part of Islamic religious life for many centuries. In the late nineteenth century, there was no official orthodoxy in Islam, and theological polemics remained an integral part of Islamic religious life for many centuries.
Sunnis
Sunnism is the largest strand in Islam (about 85-90% of Muslims). It acts as a “majoritarian” Islam, expressing the opinion and customs, theory, and practice of the majority of the community. Sunnism is characterized by an orientation toward the “correct” doctrine, which is the middle ground between extremes, as well as conformism (or pragmatism) and an attitude toward legitimizing the status quo and legitimizing established rites, beliefs and institutions. Sunni theology, developed by the two schools of kalam, the Asharite and Maturidite, also developed as a “middle school.
In the eighth and eleventh centuries, legal schools (madhabs) emerged in Sunnism: the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi’i, and Hanbali madhabs. Although there are differences of opinion on some issues among the madhhabs, all Sunni madhhabs are considered legitimate and equivalent. The most widespread of the madhhabs (which is followed by about a third of all Muslims in the world) is Hanafism, officially adopted in the early 16th century in the Ottoman Empire and now predominant among Muslims of the former Soviet Union. Hanbalism is also a theological school, and its adherents, especially the Wahhabis, are noted for their rejection of dissent, literalism in understanding the sacred texts, intolerance for any kind of innovation, and extreme strictness in observance of religious rites and norms.
Shiites
The Shi’ite Imamites (binary) recognize 12 Imams from among the direct descendants of Ali ibn Abu Talib, the last of whom Muhammad al-Mahdi mysteriously disappeared at the end of the ninth century. Shiites believe that Mahdi will appear before the Last Judgement and establish equality and justice on earth. The Shi’a, like the Sunnis, recognize the sanctity of the Qur’an, and the Sunnah recognizes its own collections of hadiths. In addition, Shiites have their own “holy scriptures” (akhbar), which include hadiths about Imam Ali. Besides Mecca the places of worship of Shiites are the Iraqi cities of Nedzhef and Kerbela, as well as the Iranian cities of Qom and Mashhad. The most influential Shiite clerics are major mullahs (mujtahids), among which the most respected have the title of ayatollah and grand ayatollah.
Shiites recognize temporary marriages (muta) as legal and practice pious concealment of their faith (taqiyya). Shiites are allowed to perform midday and afternoon prayers at the same time, as well as evening and night prayers. The Sunnis combine prayers only when traveling.
Kharijites
There is currently one Kharijite community, the Ibadis. The other Kharijite communities (Azhradites, Azraqites, Maimunites, Najdites, Yazidites, etc.) have lost their former strength and are now practically inactive.
Sufism
Sufism is a mystical movement in Islam. The Sufi movement emerged under the Umayyads, and initially took ascetic forms, expressing social protest against the sharp differentiation of the Muslim community, the luxurious and idle life of the ruling elite. In the eighth and ninth centuries, Sufism matured into a current that focused on mystical cognition of God and opposed scholasticism in theology, ritualism, and the jurisprudence of fiqh. In the next two centuries, disparate Sufi communities and cloisters began to unite into dervish orders or brotherhoods (tarikat) that had their own systems of mystical practice, initiation and investiture rites, and external signs of distinction. In the XIII century, Sufism became the main form of “popular” Islam through the activities of tariqats.
According to Sufi teachings, everyone is able to achieve communion with God through self-denial, asceticism, and prayer under the guidance of a spiritual master.
Sufism consists of four stages:
- Shariah – the rigorous observance of Islamic laws;
- Tariqat – the period of obedience as a student, the desire to subordinate his will – to the will of the teacher and God;
- Marifat – extra-experienced knowledge attained in an irrational way;
- khakihat, the comprehension of divine truth.
An important element of Sufi practice is zikr, during which prayer formulas are repeated many times. The zikr may be silent (khafi) and loud (jakhr), including the use of music and drums.